The AP Psychology exam will be given on the morning of May 14.  With the busy schedules that everyone has I decided to try this as a way to review for the exam.  If you want the answers for the quizzes or the exam you can e-mail a request to me and I will send them to you.  Also if you have suggestions for things that I need to add to the review or specific questions you may have just e-mail me.  The address is  
tmorford@woodford.k12.ky.us 

AP PSYCHOLOGY EXAM REVIEW  

        The AP Examination in Psychology is approximately two hours long and includes both a 75-minute multiple-choice section and a 45-minute free-response section.  The multiple-choice section accounts for two-thirds of the student's examination grade and the free-response section for the remaining one-third.  Major areas covered in the examination are as follows:

* Methods, Approaches, History . . . . . . . . . . 7-9%

* Biological Bases of Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10%

* Sensation and Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9%

* States of Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-4%

* Learning and Memory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9%

* Cognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9%

* Motivation and Emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9%

* Developmental Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9%

* Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9%

* Testing and Individual Differences . . . . . 5-7%

* Abnormal Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9%

* Treatment of Psychological Disorders . . 6-8%

*Social Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9%

* Practice Test - Multiple Choice and Essay questions

HISTORY AND METHODS

Psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes

A brief History

Wilhelm Wundt- founded first research lab in 1879- birth of scientific psychology

Structuralism – studied consciousness- introspection, examining one’s mind and What one is thinking and feeling.  Edward Titchener

Functionalism- look at function not structure, stress adaptation to the environment.

 William James (Principles of Psychology in 1890) John Dewey

Gestalt psychology – focus on the totality of perception, Max Wertheimer

Psychoanalysis- Sigmund Freud- focus on role of unconscious conflicts, the process      of raising these conflicts to a level of awareness is the goal of psychoanalysis

Current Views of Psychology- 
Neurobiology- Behavior viewed in terms of biological responses 
Behaviorism- Behavior viewed as a product of learned responses.
 Humanism- Behavior viewed as a reflection of internal growth. Free will, self-actualization, Carl Rogers,                         client-centered therapy 
Psychodynamic – Behavior viewed as a reflection of unconscious aggressive and sexual impulses 
Cognitive Psychology – Behavior viewed as a product of various internal sentences or thoughts.
Sociocultural – Behavior viewed as strongly influenced by the rules and expectations of specific social                         groups or cultures

 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Psychology- the scientific study of the behavior of living things

4 goals- describe, understand, predict and control
theory – general framework for scientific study; smaller aspects can be tested
Charles Darwin – theories led to comparative psychology, inspired early functionalists
Wilhelm Wundt- ‘father of psychology’, first scientific lab
Introspection- the process of looking into yourself and describing what is there
Structuralism- the first theoretical school in psychology, stated that all complex substances could be separated and analyzed into component elements  
Sigmund Freud- psychodynamic approach, emphasis on the unconscious
William James- wrote ‘Principles of Psychology’, a functionalist , coined the phrase‘stream of consciousness’
Functionalist – asked what the mind does and why, believed that all behavior and mental processes help organisms to adat to a changing environment  
John. B. Watson- behaviorist, Little Albert
Gestalt psychology –emphasized the organizational processes in behavior, rather than the content of behavior, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts
Eclecticism – the process of making your own system by borrowing from two or more other systems.
Neurobiological approach (medical)- viewing behavior as the result of nervous system functions and biology
Behavioral approach –view behavior as the product of learning and associations
B. F. Skinner- behaviorist, operant conditioning
Humanistic approach- believe people are basically good and capable of helping themselves.
Carl Rogers- a humanist
Psychoanalysis- a system of viewing the individual as the product of unconscious forces
Cognitive approach- emphasizing how humans use mental processes to handle problems or develop certain personality characteristics 
Sociocultural approach – behavior viewed as strongly influenced by the rules and expectations of specific social groups or cultures
Placebo – a ‘medicine’ with no active ingredients
Double-blind study- neither participants or researchers know who is in which group  
Hypothesis- a statement of the results that the experimenter expects  
Subjects- people or animals in the experiment  
Independent variable- factor that the experimenter manipulates in a study  
Dependent variable- the factor in a study that changes as a result of changes in the IV  
Confounding variable- factors that may cause the DV to change other than the IV
Field experiments- research that takes place outside the laboratory
Experimental group- the group that gets the changes in the IV
Control group- this group is for comparison and doesn’t get the changed IV
Survey- method of research using questions on feelings opinions, or behavior patterns
Sample- a group that represents a larger group
Naturalistic observation- research method that involves studying subjects without their being aware that they are being watched
Interview- a research method that involves studying people face to face and asking questions
Case study method- research that collects lengthy, detailed info. About a person’s background, usually for treatment
Cross-sectional method- loks at different age groups at the same time in order to understand changes that occur during the life span
Longitudinal method- studies the same group of people over a long period of time
Reliability – results of a test or study must be reproducible
Validity – measures what the psychologist wishes to measure
Construct validity – the extent to which a test measures something – a theoretical construct
Criterion-related validity- refers to how effective a test is in predicting an individual’s behavior in other specified situations (ex. SAT)
Informed consent – telling subjects all features of the experiment prior to the study
Inferential statistics –  used to measure sampling error, draw conclusions from data, and test hypotheses (ex. T-test, chi-squares, analyses of variance)
Descriptive statistics – answer the question what is the data, include measures of central tendency
Mean- average
 Median- middle number
Mode – most frequent number
Variability- how the data spreads across a graph (range, standard deviation, Z-
Correlation – the relationship between two sets of scores, range between +1.00 and –1.00, the closer to 1 the stronger the correlation
Z-score –a way of expressing a score’s distance from the mean in terms of the standard deviation  

HISTORY AND METHODS QUIZ

1.        The essence of the experimental method is

1. accurate calculation of correlations
2. obtaining direct reports from subjects about their subjective experiences.
3. Careful measurement and record keeping
4. Using control to identify cause and effect connections

2.        Which of the following is an appropriate use of naturalistic observation?

1. to raise questions and suggest hypotheses
2. to develop formal psychological theory
3. to test hypotheses derived from theory
4. to answer questions about cause and effect relationships

3.        You are at a lecture about the history of psychology and the speaker states that Wilhelm Wundt’s theory of structuralism was the first scientific psychological theory.  On what historical fact might the speaker be basing her or his argument?

1. Wundt was internationally known at the time, and this led credence to his theory in the scientific community.
2. Wundt studied under Ivan Pavlov for his graduate training, and Pavlov required scientific methods to be used.
3. Structuralism was based on the results of his introspection experiments, so it is, at least in part, empirical.
4. Structuralism was based on careful anecdotes gathered from Wundt’s extensive clinical career.
5. Wundt was the first person to study psychology in an academic setting

4.        In order to summarize or organize a series of observations in some meaningful way psychologists may develop

1. hypotheses
2. experiments
3. surveys
4. theories

5.        In the simplest experiment, the two groups of subjects are treated exactly alike except for the __ variable.

1. independent
2. dependent
3. extraneous
4. control

6.        Sigmund Freud’s theory of the unconscious mind

1. was revolutionary because it was the first comprehensive explanation of human thought and behavior.
2. Resulted from discoveries about the human brain obtained by cadaver dissection.
3. Is outdated and has no relevance for modern psychology.
4. Focused entirely on human males’ sex drive.
5. Depends on the idea that humans can remember events but not be consciously aware of the memory.

7.        The conditions that a researcher wishes to prevent from affection the experiment are called

1. constants
2. dependent variables
3. extraneous variables
4. independent variables

8.        In what way might a behaviorist disagree with a cognitive psychologist about the cause of aggression?

1. A behaviorist might state that aggression is caused by memories or ways we think about aggressive behavior, while a cognitive psychologist might say aggression is caused by a past repressed experience.
2. A behaviorist might state that aggression is a behavior encouraged by our genetic code, while a cognitive psychologist might state that aggression is caused by memories or ways we think about aggressive behavior.
3. A behaviorist might state that aggression is caused by past rewards for aggressive behavior, while a cognitive psychologist might believe aggression is caused by an expressed desire to fulfill certain life needs.
4. A behaviorist might state that aggression is caused by past rewards for aggressive behavior, while a cognitive psychologist might believe aggression is caused by memories or ways we think about aggressive behavior.
5. A behaviorist would not disagree with a cognitive psychologist about aggression because they both believe that aggressive behavior is caused by the way we cognitively process certain behaviors.

9.        A researcher wants to determine the effect of sleep deprivation on human problem solving.  Subjects in an appropriate control group for such an experiment would be described as having

1. much more sleep than normal.
2. Much less sleep than normal
3. A normal amoount of sleep
4. The same amount of sleep as the experimental group

10.     Which type of variable is measured in both the experimental and control groups of an experiment?

1. the dependent vriable
2. the independent variable
3. extraneous variables
4. the reference variable

11.     Dr. Marco explains to a client that his feelings. Of hostility toward a coworker are most likely caused by the way the client interprets the coworker’s actions, and the way he thinks that people should behave at work, Dr. Marco is most likely working from what perspective?

1. behavioral
2. cognitive
3. psychoanalytic
4. humanist
5. social-cultural

12.     In the traditional learning experiment the effect of practice on performance is investigated.  Performance is the ___ variable

1. independent
2. extraneous
3. control
4. dependent

13.     One of the limitations of the survey method is

1. observer bias
2. that it sets up an artificial situation
3. that replies may not be accurate
4. the self-fulfilling prophecy

14.     Which of the following is not a goal of psychology?

1. description of behavior
2. prediction of behavior
3. depiction of behavior
4. understanding behavior

15.     Control is an important goal of psychology.  For most psychologists, control means

1. heavy reliance upon rewards rather than punishments
2. manipulation of behavior by government, educators, scientists, or authorities
3. altering conditions that influence behavior in predictable ways

16.     Professor Ma wants to design a project studying emotional response to date rape.  He advertises for participants in the school newspaper, informs them about the nature of the study, gets their consent, conducts an interview, and debriefs them about the results when the experiment is over.  If you were on the IRB, which ethical consideration would you most likely have the most concern about in Professor Ma’s study?

1. Coercion                                                D. anonymity
2. Deception                                              E. clear scientific purpose
   C. confounding variables

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BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR

                                               THE HUMAN BRAIN

  The influence of biology (sometimes called the neuroscience or biopsychological perspective) is growing.  Some researchers predict that someday psychology will be a specialty within the field of biology.  An understanding of the biological principles relevant to psychology is needed to understand current psychological thinking.

 The human brain consists of three major divisions;  hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain

Brain Structure

Hindbrain- structures in the top part of the spinal cord, controls basic biological functions that keep us alive.             Medulla- controls blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing  
Pons- connects the hindbrain with the mid and forebrain, also involved in the control of facial expressions Cerebellum- portion of the lower brain that coordinates and organizes bodily movements for balance and accuracy

Midbrain-between the hind and forebrain, coordinates simple movements with sensory information,

Forebrain- controls what we think of as thought and reason  
Thalamus- portion of the lower brain that functions primarily as a central relay station for incoming and outgoing messages from the body to the brain and the brain to the body  
Hypothalamus- portion of the lower brain that regulates basic needs (hunger, thirst) and emotions such as pleasure, fear, rage, and sexuality
Amygdala and Hippocampus- two arms surrounding the thalamus, important in how we process and perceive memory and emotion

NOTE: The three parts above are grouped together and called the limbic system because they all deal with aspects of emotion and memory.

Ways of studying the brain

           Accidents, Lesions, Electroencephalogram, Computerized axial tomography, Magnetic resonance imaging, Positron emission tomography, Functional MRI

 Neuroanatomy  

Neuron – a nerve cell, which transmits electrical and chemical information throughout the body 
dendrite- part of the neuron that receives information from the axons of other nerve cells  
Axon- part of the neuron that carries messages away from one neuron to the dendrites of another  
Cell body, or soma- contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life  
Myelin sheath- a fatty covering around the axon that speeds neural impulses  
Terminal buttons- the branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters  
Vesicles – bubblelike containers of neurotransmitters, located at the end of an axon

Neurotransmitters-– chemicals in the endings of nerve cells that send information across the synapse Acetylcholine – neurotransmitter that regulates basic bodily processes such as movement  
Dopamine – a neurotransmitter involved in the control of bodily movements ( involved in  Parkinson’s disease, and Alzheimer’s)  
Endorphins – neurotransmitters that relieve pain and increase our sense of wellbeing 
Serotonin- mood control

Synapse- the junction point of two or more neurons; a connection is made by neurotransmitters.

Action potential  
All-or-none principle  
Afferent neurons, or sensory neurons             
 Interneurons                                                     
 Efferent neurons, or motor neurons

Central nervous system- brain and spinal cord  
Peripheral nervous system- - all other nerves 
            Somatic nervous system- controls voluntary movements 
            Autonomic nervous system- controls involuntary movements

Sympathetic nervous system- speeds things up- prepares body for fight or flight                         Parasympathetic nervous system-- brings the body back to normal

 Cerebral cortex- covers the lower brain and controls mental processes such as thought

            Frontal lobes-– contains the motor strip and frontal association area  
Frontal association area – plays an important part in integrating personality and in forming complex thoughts  
Motor strip- band running down the side of the frontal lobe that controls all bodily movements

Parietal lobes -– area that contains the sensory strip  
Sensory strip- band running down the side of he parietal lobe that registers and provides all sensation

            Occipital lobes- area that interprets visual information

Temporal lobes- area responsible for hearing and some speech functions

Lobe- major division of the brain  

Hemispheres- one-half of the two halves of the brain; controls the opposite side of the body

Brain lateralization  
Corpus callosum - bundle of nerve fibers that transfers info. From one hemisphere to the other  
Fissure- a lengthy depression marking off an area of the brain  
Reticular activating system- the alertness control center of the brain that regulates the activity level of the body  
Split-brain  
Brain plasticity 
Endocrine system – system of all the glands and their chemical messages taken together 
Hormones – chemical regulators that control bodily processes such as emotional responses, growth,                     and sexuality

Pituitary gland – the master gland of the body that activates other glands and controls the growth hormone

Growth hormone – hormone that regulates the growth process

Thyroid gland – controls and regulates the speed of bodily processes called metabolism

Metabolism – the speed at which the body operates of the speed at which it uses up energy

Adrenal glands – glands that release the hormone that causes excitement in order to prepare the body for an emergency

Adrenaline – chemical that prepares the body for emergency activity by increasing blood pressure, breathing rate, and energy level

 BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOR QUIZ

1.      Blindness could result from damage to which cortex and lobe of the brain?

1. visual cortex in the frontal lobe
2. visual cortex in the temporal lobe
3. sensory cortex in the parietal lobe
4. visual cortex in the occipital lobe
5. cerebral cortex in the occipital lobe

2.      Paralysis of the left arm might be explained by a problem in the

1. motor cortex in the frontal lobe in the left hemisphere.
2. Motor cortex in the frontal lobe in the right hemisphere.
3. Sensorimotor cortex in the temporal lobe in the left hemisphere.
4. Motor cortex in the parietal lobe in the left hemisphere.
5. Motor cortex in the occipital lobe in the right hemisphere.

3.      Deafness can result from damage to the inner ear or damage to what area of the brain?

1. Connections between the auditory nerve and the auditory cortex in the frontal lobe.
2. Connections between the auditory nerve and the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe.
3. Connections between the areas of the sensory cortex that receive messages from the ears and the auditory cortex.
4. Connections between the hypothalamus and the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe.
5. Connections between the left and right sensory areas of the cerebellum.

4.      According to the theory of evolution, why might we call some parts of the brain the old brain and some parts the new brain?

1. Old brain parts are what exist in very young children, and the new brain develops later
2. The old brain developed first according to evolution..
3. The old brain becomes more active as we grow older.
4. The new brain deals with new information, while the old brain deals with information gathered when we were children.
5. The old brain is most affected by age deterioration (dementias) while the new brain remains unaffected.

5.      Which chemicals pass across the synaptic gap and increase the possibility the next neuron in the chain will fire?

1. synaptic peptides
2. inhibitory neurotransmitters
3. adrenaline-type exciters
4. excitatory neurotransmitters
5. potassium and sodium

6.      You eat some bad sushi and feel that you are slowly losing control over your muscles.  The bacteria you ingested from the bad sushi most likely interferes with the use of

1. Serotonin                                  D. thorazine     
2.  Dopamine                                E. adrenaline
3. acetylcholine

 7.      The three major categories researchers use to organize the entire brain are the

1. old brain, new brain, and cerebral cortex
2. lower, middle, and upper brain.
3. Hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain.
4. Brain stem, limbic system, and cerebral cortex
5. Neurons, synapses, and cerebral cortex.

8.      A spinal reflex differs from a normal sensory and motor reaction in that

1. a spinal reflex occurs only in response to extremely stressful stimuli.
2. In a spinal reflex, the spine moves the muscles in response as soon as the sensory information reaches the spine while usually the impulse must reach the brain before a response.
3. In a normal sensory/motor reaction, the spine transmits the information through afferent nerve fibers, while reflex reactions are transmitted along special efferent nerves.
4. Spinal reflexes are part of the central nervous system response, while normal sensory/motor reactions are part of the peripheral nervous system.
5. Spinal reflexes occur only in animals because humans are born without instinctual responses.

9.      Antidepressant drugs like Prozac are often used to treat mood  disorders.  According to what you know about their function, which neurotransmitter system do these types of drugs try to affect?

1. serotonin
2. adrenaline
3. acetylcholine
4. endorphins
5. morphine

10.  Which sentence most closely describes neural transmission?

1. An electric charge is created in the neuron, the charge travels down the cell, and chemicals are released that cross the synapse to the next cell.
2. A chemical change occurs within the cell, the change causes an electric charge to be produced, and the charge jumps the gap between the nerve cells.
3. The electric charge produced chemically inside a group of neurons causes chemical changes in surrounding cells.
4. Neurotransmitters produced in the hindbrain are transmitted to the forebrain, causing electric changes in the cerebral cortex.
5. Neural transmission is an electrochemical process both inside and outside the cell.

11.  Dr. Dahab, a brain researcher,  is investigating the connection between certain environmental stimuli and brain processes. Which types of brain scans is he most likely to use?

1. MRI and CAT
2. CAT and EKG
3. PET and EEG
4. EKG and CAT
5. Lesioning and MRI

12.  Split-brain patients are unable to

1. coordinate movements between their major and minor muscle groups.
2. Speak about information received exclusively in their right hemisphere.
3. Speak about information received exclusively in their left hemisphere.
4. Solve abstract problems involving integrating logical (left-hemisphere) and spatial (right hemisphere) information.
5. Speak about information received exclusively through their left ear, left eye, or left side of their bodies.

13.  When brain researchers refer to brain plasticity , they are talking about

1. the brain’s ability to regrow damaged neurons.
2. The surface texture and appearance caused by the layer known as the cerebral cortex.
3. The brain’s versatility caused by the millions of different neural connections.
4. Our adaptability to different problems ranging from survival needs to abstract reasoning.
5. New connections forming in the brain to take over for damaged sections.

14.  Mr. Spam is a 39-year-old male who has been brought into your neurology clinic by his wife.  She has become increasingly alarmed by her husband’s behavior over the last four months.  You recommend a CAT scan to look for tumors in the brain.  Which two parts of the brain would you predict are being affected by the tumors?  List of symptoms: vastly increased appetite, body temperature fluctuations, decreased sexual desire, jerky movements, poor balance when walking and standing, inability to throw objects, and exaggerated efforts to coordinate movements in a task
A.     motor cortex and emotion cortex
B.     motor cortex and hypothalamus
C.     hypothalamus and cerebellum
D.     cerebellum and medulla
E.      thalamus and motor cortex

15.  In most people, which one of the following is a specific function of the left hemisphere that is typically not controlled by the right hemisphere?

1. producing speech
2. control of the left hand
3. spatial reasoning
4. hypothesis testing
5. abstract reasoning

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SENSATION AND PERCEPTION  

Sensation -Experience of sensory stimulation, the activation or our senses  
Perception -Process of creating meaningful patterns from raw sensory information

.ENERGY SENSES

VISION

            Vision is the dominant sense in human beings.  Sighted people use vision to gather information abot their environment more than any other sense.  The process of vision involves several steps.  

Step 1: Gathering light

 Step 2: Within the eye

Cornea -The transparent protective coating over the front part of the eye  
Pupil -small opening in the iris through which light enters the eye.  
Iris -colored part of the eye.  
Lens -transparent part of the eye inside the pupil that focuses light onto the retina  
Retina -lining of the eye containing receptor cells that are sensitive to light

Step 3: Transduction

Transduction –process by which sensory signals are transformed into neural impulses  
Receptor cell -Specialized cell that responds to a particular type of energy.  
Rods -Receptor cells in the retina responsible for night vision and perception of brightness.  
Cones -Receptor cells in the retina responsible for color vision  
Fovea -Area of the retina that is the center of the visual field  
Optic nerve - The bundle of axons of ganglion cells that carries neural messages from each eye to the brain.  
Blind spot - Place on the retina where the axons of all the ganglion cells leave the eye and  where there are no receptors Optic chiasm -Point near the base of the brain where some fibers in the optic nerve from each eye cross to the other side of the brain

 Step 4: In the Brain

 Theories or color vision-

Trichromatic theory -Theory of color vision that holds that all color perception derives from three different color receptors in the retina

Opponent-process theory - Theory of color vision that holds that three sets of color receptors respond in an either/or fashion to determine the color you experience

Colorblindness -Partial or total inability to perceive hues.

Trichromats -People who have normal color vision

Monochromats -People who are totally color blind

Dichromats - People who are blind to either red-green or yellow-blue  

HEARING  

The ears contain structures for both the sense of hearing and the sense of balance. The eighth cranial nerve (vestibulocochlear nerve made up of the auditory and vestibular nerves) carries nerve impulses for both hearing and balance from the ear to the brain.

Amplitude – the height of the wave , determines the loudness of the sound, measured in decibels  
Frequency - The number of cycles per second in a wave; in sound, the primary determinant of pitch  
Hertz (Hz) - Cycles per second; unit of measurement for the frequency of waves  
Pitch - Auditory experience corresponding primarily to frequency of sound vibrations, resulting in a higher or lower tone Decibel -The magnitude of a wave; in sound the primary determinant of loudness of sounds

 Parts of the ear-  
Ear canal – also called the auditory canal  
Eardrum-  
Hammer, anvil, stirrup - The three small bones in the middle ear that relay vibrations of the eardrum to the inner ear  
Oval window - Membrane across the opening between the middle ear and inner ear that conducts vibrations to the cochlea  
Round window - Membrane between the middle ear and inner ear that equalizes pressure in the inner ear.
Cochlea - Part of the inner ear containing fluid that vibrates which in turn causes the basilar membrane to vibrate.  
Basilar membrane -Vibrating membrane in the cochlea of the inner ear; it contains sense receptors for sound  
Organ of Corti -Structure on the surface of the basilar membrane that contains the receptors cells for hearing  
Auditory nerve -The bundle of neurons that carries signals from each ear to the brain

 PITCH THEORIES- As with color vision, two different theories describe the two processes involved in hearing pitch: place theory and frequency theory.

Place theory -Theory that pitch is determined by the location of greatest vibration of the basilar membrane Frequency theory -Theory that pitch is determined by the frequency wigh which hair cells in the cochlea fire

DEAFNESS  

Hearing Loss

• Conductive Hearing Loss: occurs when sound vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear are blocked. This may be caused by ear wax in the auditory canal, fluid buildup in the middle ear, ear infections or abnormal bone growth.
• Sensorineural Hearing Loss: occurs when there is damage to the vestibulocochlear (auditory) nerve. This type of hearing loss may be caused by head injury, birth defects, high blood pressure or stroke.
• Presbycusis: occurs because of changes in the inner ear. This is a very common type of hearing loss that happens gradually in older age.
• Tinnitus: people with tinnitus hear a constant ringing or roaring sound. The cause of this ringing cannot always be found. Some cases of tinnitus are caused by ear wax, ear infections or a reaction to antibiotics, but there are many other possible causes of this disorder.

TOUCH

When our skin is indented, pierced, or experiences a change in temperature, our sense of touch is activated by this energy.

Gate control theory - Theory that a ‘neurological gate in the spinal cord controls the transmission of pain messages to the brain  

CHEMICAL SENSES

 TASTE (GUSTATION)  
Taste buds
Papillae-

Humans sense four different tastes: sweet, salty, sour, and bitter  

 SMELL (OLFACTION)  

Olfactory epithelium - Nasal membranes containing receptor cells sensitive to odors  
Pheromone - Chemical that communicates information to other organisms through smell

VESTIBULAR SENSE – tells us about how our body is oriented in space.

Semicircular canals - Structure in the inner ear particularly sensitive to body roataion.

Vestibular sacs - Sacs in the inner ear that are responsible for sensing gravitation and forward, backward, and vertical movement

KINESTHETIC SENSES -Senses of forces and movement of muscles

Stretch receptors -Receptors that sense muscle stretch and contraction

Golgi tendon organs -Receptors that sense movement of the tendons, which connect muscle to bone.

 PERCEPTION

THRESHOLDS

Absolute threshold -The least amount of energy that can be detected as a stimulation 50 percent of the time

Subliminal- stimuli below our absolute threshold

Difference threshold -The smallest change in stimulation that can be detected 50 percent of the time

just-noticeable difference – the smallest amount of change needed in a stimulus before we detect a change

Weber’s Law -The principle that the just noticeable difference for any given sense is a constant proportion of the stimulation being judged.

 PERCEPTUAL THEORIES

            Psychologists use several theories to describe how we perceive the world.

Signal detection theory- investigates the effects of the distractions and interference we experience while perceiving the world.

Response criteria

False positive

Top-Down Processing – we perceive by filling in gaps in what we sense

            Schemata

            Perceptual set

Backmasking

Bottom-up Processing, also called feature analysis – we use only the features of the object itself to build a complete perception

GESTALT RULES

            Proximity

            Similarity

            Continuity

            Closure

CONSTANCY- Tendency to perceive objects as stable and unchanging despite changes in sensory stimulation  
Size constancy - Perception of an object as the same size regardless of the distance from which it is viewed  
Shape constancy - Tendency to see an object as the same shape no matter what angle it is viewed from  
Brightness constancy - Perception of brightness as the same, even though the amount of light reaching the retina changes

 DEPTH CUES

Visual cliff experiment-

Monocular cues - Visual cues requiring the use of one eye

interposition - Monocular distance cue in which one object, by partly blocking a second object, is perceived as being closer.  
Linear perspective - Monocular cue to distance and depth based on the fact that two parallel lines seem to come together at the horizon  
Relative size-  
Texture gradient-  
Shadowing-

Binocular cues - Visual cues requiring the use of both eyes

Retinal disparity - Binocular distance cue based on the difference between the images  
Convergence- cast on the two retinas when both eyes are focused on the same object  
Stereoscopic vision - Combination of two retinal images to give a three-dimensional perceptual experience.

SENSATION AND PERCEPTION QUIZ

1.       Our sense of smell may be a powerful trigger for memories because

1. we are conditioned from birth to make strong connections between smells and events.
2. The nerve connecting the olfactory bulb sends impulses directly to the limbic system
3. The receptors at the top of each nostril connect with the cortex
4. Smell is a powerful cue for encoding memories into long-term memory
5. Strong smells encourage us to process events deeply so they will most likely be remembered

2.       The cochlea is responsible for

1. protecting the surface of the eye
2. transmitting vibrations received by the eardrum to the hammer, anvil, and stirrup.
3. The receptors at the top of each nostril conect with the cortex
4. Smell is a powerful cue for encoding memories into long-term memory
5. Strong smells encourage us to process events deeply so they will most likely be remembered.

3.       In a perception research lab, you are asked to describe the shape of the top of a box as the box is slowly rotated. Which concept are the researchers most likely investigating?

1. feature detectors in the retina
2. feature detectors in the occipital lobe
3. placement of rods and cones in the retina
4. binocular depth cues
5. shape constancy

4.       The blind spot in our eye results from

1. the lack of receptors at the spot where the optic nerve connects to the retina
2. the shadow the pupil makes on the retina
3. competing processing between the visual cortices in the left and right hemisphere
4. floating debris in the space between the lens and the retina
5. retinal damage from bright light

5.       Smell and taste are called _______ because

1. energy senses; they send impulses to the brain in the form of electric energy
2. chemical senses; they detect chemicals in what we taste and smell
3. flavor senses; smell and taste combine to create flavor.
4. Chemical senses; they send impulses to the brain in the form of chemicals.
5. Memory senses; they both have powerful connections to memory

6.       What is the principal difference between amplitude and frequency in the context of sound waves ?

1. Amplitude is the tone or timbre of a sound, while frequency is the pitch.
2. Amplitude is detected in the cochlea, while frequency is detected in the auditory cortex.
3. Amplitude is the height of the sound wave, while frequency is a measure of how frequently the sound waves pass a given point.
4. Both measure qualities of sound, but frequency is a more accurate measure since it measures the shapes of the waves rather than the strength of the waves.
5. Frequency is a measure for light waves, while amplitude is a measure for sound waves.

7.       Weber’s law determines

1. absolute threshold.
2. Focal length of the eye.
3. Level of subliminal messages.
4. Amplitude of sound waves.
5. Just-noticeable difference.